Discrimination against people with HIV at work

Monday morning was the best time of the week for mike for he loved going to work which could not be said for most of his colleagues. Mike had wanted to be a system analyst all his life and though he had been working at Mercury Star for four and a half years. He came into the office with the drive, sense of excitement, enthusiasm and expectation that an 8 year old boy had when his dad took him to get his first bicycle.His daily routine involved; getting into the office at least thirty minutes early so as to have enough time to settle in, review the previous day’s work and establish what would be his workload for the day. The first thing he did was to sit and admire the two beautiful, polished glass trophies which sat on the table on the left side of the room next to the picture of his girlfriend. These trophies were the reward for his hard earned success as he had been the firm’s employee of the year for the last two consecutive years.It was unusual for a 28 year old to have achieved that kind of success in such a short time as mike had already been promoted to a managerial post. Mike was a respected man in his work place and his employees looked up to him and some even pegged him as they guy who will be a Chief Executive Officer by the time he was 35. though he downplayed this remarks he always felt that he had the potential and after wining his second employee of the year award that became his new ambition. Within just four years he had become the one of the best system analysts in the city.Mike had his whole future planned out, how he would propose to his long time girlfriend by the end of the year, he was in the middle of negotiating a mortgage with the local bank and he was paying the last installment on his BMW M9. He even drew up a plan in which he planned to work extra so that he would be able to go into retirement by the age of 40 and set up a system analysis consultancy firm within the city (Geoffrey 23). His position in the office came w ith a health insurance package which until this time Mike had never used it.But on this Monday morning Mike felt different he felt like he was coming up with flu so after he reported to work he took the day off to go and see his doctor which was unusual as Mike rarely got sick. The doctor at first was not able to tell what was wrong with him so he ran some tests. When Mike came to see the doctor late in the afternoon the news that doctor gave him made him feel like his life had just been pulled right from under his feet. The words â€Å"I’m sorry Mike but you are HIV positive† keep ringing in his head.Mike did not even hear what the doctor said for next few minutes as he tried to let the news sink in. The medical cover policy had a condition that when an employee visits the firm’s doctor, he had to furnish the management with a complete report of the doctor’s examination. Mike went back to work after three days and tried to act like nothing had happened. But however much he tried he could not shake off what the doctor had told him he couldn’t and on this particular day he got to work late which had never happened.A soon as got to the office he was informed that the boss wanted to see him. When he got into his office, the boss offered him a sit and for the next fifteen minutes he went on and on how Mike was an excellent employ but what happened after that Mike would never have contemplated. The boss told him that the board had discussed on the medical report and had come to the conclusion to let him go. It was at this point that he truly felt his world come crumble and all his dreams and ambitions came tumbling down. What and end to a brilliant young man’s career. Discrimination against People with HIV at Work A salesman representative is terminated from his job when he was diagnosed as HIV positive. He was about to complete the six months requirement in order to become a regular employee but he was terminated under the dubious excuse of â€Å"grave misconduct†. But the real cause of his termination is his health condition, specifically, being positive on HIV or AIDS. The Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome, more commonly known as AIDS, is caused by the HIV or the Human Immunodeficiency Virus. The virus impairs the body’s defenses or immune system and leaves the body vulnerable to various serious and fatal illnesses (â€Å"AIDS and the Workplace†, 1992).People with HIV infection are living like normal people. They are able to perform well in their community and in their workplace environment. But still, discrimination against people with HIV is still prevalent in some areas, especially in the workplace. The United Nations campaigns for the ban of prejudice against peopl e with HIV/AIDS. Secretary General Ban Ki-moon called for worldwide efforts in battling not only the disease but the discrimination that is also widespread (â€Å"Ban urges end to Prejudice against People Living with HIV/AIDS†, 2008).Companies should address issues that are related to HIV/AIDS by enhancing a non-discriminatory workplace environment and by providing education regarding the frequently asked questions on AIDS. For the workplace environment that has an increased risk in blood exchange, the company should apply a control program in order to monitor and regulate the activities in the workplace (â€Å"AIDS and the Workplace†, 1992). People infected with HIV have the capacity to live normally in the society. And as such, we must not deprive the infected people with AIDS to do their tasks and participate and socialize with the other members of the society.

Ethical Analysis of Baby Theresa Essay

Baby Theresa is a very unique case. Theresa Ann Campo Pearson was an infant born in Florida 1992, with Anencephaly, which is where the two most important parts of the brain are missing, the cerebrum and cerebellum, as well as the top of the skull. Without these parts of the brain she would never have had higher brain functions or consciousness. However, there is still a brain stem connected so all the autonomic functions are still working, such as having a heart beat and breathing. Anencephaly is known as one of the worst congenital disorders, thus these cases are usually detected during pregnancy and aborted. If not aborted, half are stillborn or if born alive, they usually die within a few days. In Baby Theresa’s case, she died nine days after birth. Even though, knowing that Baby Theresa would not live long and never have a conscious life, her parents requested that her organs would not go to waste, but instead be donated for transplants for other infants in need before Theresa’s natural death. In fact, even physicians agreed that was a good idea because over 2000 infants need transplants each year. Unfortunately, the state of Florida prohibits euthanasia and that the organs only be removed when natural death occurs. Eventually, within the nine days Baby Theresa organs decayed and were not used because the Circuit Court Judge Estella Moriarty ruled that a Florida statute does not allow a person to be declared dead while any part of the brain is functioning. The judge told the parents: â€Å"I can’t authorize someone to take your baby’s life, however short, however unsatisfying, to save another child. † Which brings me to my first ethical argument, â€Å"It’s wrong to kill†. According to Immanuel Kant and his Kantian deontological theory, the principle of morality and our perfect duties, which one happens to be â€Å"it’s wrong to kill an innocent person†, comes from the categorical imperative. Kant states in the text on page 18 that, â€Å"act in such a way that you always treat humanity, whether in your own person or in the person of any other, never simply as a means, but always at the same time as an end. † This is basically saying you always respect another person’s dignity. Thus, from a  Kantian standpoint, it is wrong to kill Theresa and take her organs to save others because then they would be using her merely as a means to other infants’ ends. However, to play devils advocate, â€Å"using a person† typically means you are violating their autonomy- their right to live and decide for themselves according to their own desires and values. With that being said, Baby Theresa was not autonomous because she had no consciousness, she had no ability to ever decide what was in her best interest and desire. So, technically, the Judge of the circuit court was not respecting the parents’ dignity of wanting to donate Theresa’s organs. For that reason, D. W Ross’s theory should have been taken into consideration. Indeed, I understand why the judge decided to make the ruling she did because if she did allow the physicians to take Theresa’s life before natural death took its course, it would have possibly undermined all physicians as untrustworthy, which could have ruined the patient-physician relationship. However, even though her ruling was very understandable, an important and very valuable theory should not have been over looked with a case as exceptional as this one, the Prima Facie Duty. W. D Ross explains when to consider this theory on page 23 that, â€Å" to provide a defensible account of â€Å"cases of conscience,† that is, situations that confront us with a conflict of duties. † Meaning when a person is uncertain and unsettled, but still must make a decision, but yet does not know which direction to go, you make a Prima Facie Duty. Ross then went on to explain that, â€Å"a Prima Facie Duty can be overridden by another Prima Facie Duty that in a particular set of circumstances is more stringent. With that being said, the duty of justice and the duty of beneficence can both be applied here because the Judge should have respected the parents’ religion and wishes, in their time of distress, to make their own personal decisions with their daughter by making other beings in the world conditions better. Also, the â€Å"it’s wrong to kill an innocent person† argument can be debated as well. Yes, I agree, it is wrong to kill a person to save another person, but there are exceptions, like what even makes a person, a person? Should Baby Theresa be considered a person? Research shows that all people have minds and all minds are capable of conscious mental activity, which Baby Theresa did not any thoughts or feelings, she was basically just breathing, so she should not have been considered as a person by these terms. Indeed, many infants could have benefitted from Baby Theresa’s organs, leading me to believe that the Utilitarianism theory was the correct approach to take for this case. In fact, when Jeremy Bentham created the Utilitarianism theory, he also made a point to focus on the consequences as much as the positive outcomes, which was called the Hedonistic Calculus. The Hedonistic Calculus is like a compare and contrast graph to weigh out the pleasures and pains of a situation because his main principle was, â€Å"act to promote the greatest amount of happiness for the greatest amount of people and less suffering to the less amount of people† and pleasure is the only value in the world based on the hedonism. With this in mind, if the parents were happy with making other families happy by giving their child organs for a good cause without technically harming or killing Baby Theresa, they ought to do so and that is what Ethics is all about, what you ought to do in a dilemma. Where as, on the other hand, by not allowing the organs to be donated for transplants, not only was the Judge dissatisfying Theresa parents wishes, she was possibly causing a larger chain reaction of disappointment and agony to the other families who would have been grateful and appreciative of Theresa organs, rather than allowing them to decay, causing pain to multiple parties. Ultimately, this case is a tricky one because I fully understand both the Kantian Theory plus the Utilitarianism and Consequentialist theory, but I see absolutely no benefits from overriding the parents’ beliefs and wishes of wanting to donate Theresa’s kidneys, liver, heart, lungs, and eyes because overall, many children could have tremendously benefitted from them.

Reform in government Essay

When it comes to making reform in government, politicians are programmed to act in one distinct manner. They want to prop up spending on government programs. The idea and prevailing thought on this is that if you throw enough money at something, it is bound to improve. This type of thinking is what causes politicians to add lots of new programs to the docket when in reality, they have not yet taken the time to evaluate the success of progress of their already implemented programs. There are many reasons why this type of thing might happen, but one of the most important is because, simply put, there is not enough time to sit back and evaluate new programs. The thought, at least in the minds of politicians, is that these programs take a few years to really have an impact. This means that the positive or negative things associated with a new program will not be seen for many months, so politicians do not think that they can correctly evaluate it (USGovernmentspending. com). The solution for this problem would be to evaluate programs starting further back before commiting to spend more money on new government programs, but this is not the way that politicians are programmed. They are programmed in a way that rewards public spending and new reform. This is one thing that politicians can point to when they run for re-election, so that people will see that they are doing something in Washington. Even if a program is not successful in affecting change in society, politicians are able to say that they were doing something in order to fix the problem, even if that something was counterproductive in nature.

The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Essay

The Efficacy And Advantages Of Inserting Foreign Genes Into The Chloroplastic Genome Instead Of The Nuclear Genome - Essay Example Another batch of DNA was treated in a likewise manner, except that nucleotides containing thymine were added instead of adenine. (Avril, 187-94) When these two samples of DNA were mixed, the complementary "tails" of A- and T-bearing nucleotides became joined by hydrogen bonding. This combined the once separate fragments into long, interconnected chains. DNA ligase was then added to form bonds between the sugar and phosphate groups. The two DNA strands were now one. It was certainly intriguing that one could now cut up DNA into unpredictable heterogeneous fragments and randomly stitch them back together. However, for further insights into the organization of DNA and its genes -- that is, the determination of precise nucleotide sequencesvery specific nucleases would have to be found. The prevailing opinion was that such specific DNA-cutting capability did not exist in nature. The only clue to the possibility that more specific nucleases might exist came from observations beginning as early as 1953 that when DNA molecules from E. coli were introduced into another slightly different form of E. coli they seldom functioned genetically. They were quickly broken down into smaller fragments. This apparently was part of a system that had evolved in bacteria to protect them against the entrance of foreign DNA. In addition to all of the other more obvious forms of competition in nature, there is a constant invisible struggle played out in the microscopic world, in this case between bacteria and bacteriophages. Darwin's natural selection is recreated here on a minute scale. (David, 131-44) First, bacteria can be grown under controlled conditions, rapidly and in enormous numbers. Overnight, a few cells will multiply into literally billions. It is very important to understand that a bacterial cell ordinarily reproduces simply by copying itself. Assuming that no mutations occur in the cells, all the descendants of that one cell are identical. Such a population of cells originating from a single cell is termed a "clone" and the process of producing that clone is referred to as "cloning" the cell. The DNA in a typical bacterial cell exists in two forms. One is the single bacterial chromosome which, unlike the chromosomes in our cells, is in the form of a circular molecule. The DNA of all other organisms can be likened to a long string. In bacteria, the ends of the string are joined, forming a circle. In addition to the DNA in the bacterial chromosome, DNA also occurs in bacteria in the form of plasmids. These, like the bacterial chromosome, are also circular DNA molecules, but much smaller. When the bacterial cell divides, the bacterial chromosome replicates and one chromosome is passed on to the new cell. Likewise, each of the plasmids replicate and half are delivered to the next generation. The plasmids are unique, independent, self-replicating DNA molecules which can exist only within the living bacterial cell. Plasmids can easily be isolated from bacteria by breaking open the cells with enzymes which break down the cell wall. The resulting mix is centrifuged.The heavier chromosomal DNA, termed "genomic" DNA, as well as cell fragments will go to the

Cs related essay Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Cs related essay - Coursework Example On the other hand, supporters claim that outsourcing brings down prices giving economic advantages to all. Outsourcing entails hiring overseas freelancers or companies, situated anywhere around the globe, to perform tasks an employee, entrepreneur, or CEO would generally do him/herself or assign to employees of the company. ODesk, Freelancer, and Elance are outsourcing avenues, where providers, from every part of the world, offer their services online (Osnowitz 9). Ethical outsourcing is a key to its lasting success. Customers prefer to buy from trustworthy companies, who make their business deals transparent as well as treat their workers with integrity. When a company gets outsourced, the individuals who are removed from the main company have to shift the knowledge to the new workers who come to the board. In few cases, it does not suit the full requirements (Sheldon 48). There might be a gap in communication when an individual transfers their knowledge to the third party. One may lack interest to coach the third party individual, but he/she is forced to do it. In such a case communication honesty as well as doing the correct duties makes the interest of ethical issues since this is against the Freedom of Speech. There is language as well as cultural barriers when communicating with the abroad workers. The overseas employees communicate in broken as well as inexplicable English with Americans. As a result, the corporations have to concession on the product quality. Indirectly one sees, now days due to job outsourcing in a peek, abroad workers are excellent in communication as well as very gifted (Sheldon 51). They can effortlessly comprehend the state of affairs and end up with good thoughts, offer the quality, and safety of the product. Customers benefit from the product of the result. From a Utilitarian point of view, outsourcing is good because there is no requirement to compromise the safety and quality of the product. The

Will the Oil Crisis happen Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Will the Oil Crisis happen - Essay Example As Daniel Yergen concisely states, "We're not running out of oil. Not yet." He qualifies this statement by stating, "Right now the oil market is tight, even tighter than it was on the eve of the 1973 oil crisis." He even states that, "in this high-risk market, 'surprises' ranging from political instability to hurricanes could send oil prices spiking higher," but he - like many other scholars - does not foresee an actual supply shortage in the near future. He notes that the public at large has heard the rumor that rising gas prices are an indication "that the world is going to begin running out of oil in five or 10 years," and many people believe this falsehood to be true. However, the reality of the situation is just not that simple. The ever-changing prices of fuel might be an indicator of a fluctuation in the market, but many experts agree that price instability is not a reflection of a dwindling oil supply. Yergen states that new field research conducted by Peter Jackson and Robert Esser actually indicates quite the opposite is true. He states that Jackson and Esser have actually forecast "a large, unprecedented buildup of oil supply in the next few years." Their figures estimate that "between 2004 and 2010, capacity to produce oil could grow by 16 million barrels a day -- from 85 million barrels per day to 101 million barrels a day -- a 20 percent increase." Although fuel consumption is a never-ending fact of our society, modern technology is making it possible for the world's oil suppliers to use much more efficient techniques for finding new reserves and exploiting the ones we already have. As Deming states, "With every passing year it becomes possible to exploit oil resources that could not have been recovered with old technologies." Much of the optimism in Leonardo Maugeri's The Age of Oil is founded in such technological hope. He writes, "It is probably true that our planet does not hide many more gigantic, yet-to-be-discovered deposits of conventional oil. But the discovery trends we are witnessing today can make this irrelevant" (220). He believes that "unconventional sources such as gas liquids, ultra-deep offshore deposits, ultra-heavy oils, shale oils, and tar sands" hold some hope for future development. Scientists are currently researching ways to put these resources to use. Since high gas prices allow companies to have more capital for scientific advancement and research, his hope of nontraditional fuel sources may likely become a reality. He also states that the Persian Gulf and Russian Federation "have huge potential for new reserves additions" if they can overcome "outmoded technologies and poor management" (221). Ultimately, when fuel companies need this oil, the market will likely force them to find a way to make the right technologies available to these regions. For example, the largest oilfield in Kuwait is still using equipment from the 1940's and 1950's to extract its oil (224). Surely, modern technology will be able to help this field and many others as the quest for oil intensifies. Yergin predicts that "the share of 'unconventional oil' - Canadian oil sands, ultra-deep-water developments, 'natural gas liquids' - will rise from 10 percent of total capacity in 1990 to 30 percent by

Academic Language Analysis Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Academic Language Analysis - Essay Example The indirect quotes that were used in the sentences in these paragraphs equaled the number of sentence that existed since they were twelve and it can be said that each sentence had an indirect quote with no occurrence of any indirect quotes. These paragraphs were therefore average in the size when the number of sentences and the amount of words are considered since there were slightly over three hundred words in both paragraphs and an average of one hundred and fifty words in each of the paragraphs. This makes it easier to understand the reading since the sentences are not unnecessarily long and they put the points that they have across to the person that is reading much easier. The introduction of the article brings into perspective in a clear way what the main article contains and talks about. It outlines what the goal of the study which is to explore how college students use the internet in the studies that they are undertaking and the opinions that these students have of the academic position online on a basis of a sample that represents the whole nation (Jones & Johnson-Yale et al., 2008). This gives an insight in the contents of the rest of the material that is contained in the article and makes it an easier read. The literature review is arranged in such a manner that the subheadings that it contains are supposed to indicate when writer has moved from one idea to the next one as the article develops. These subheadings are numbered in sequence such that they follow each other in a simple way to keep the ideas flowing so that they do not appear to be jumbled all over the place and make the article to become harder to read. This literature review is not only a summary of the sources that the article relied on, but it is organized in a particular manner that makes it fuse the summary which is an outline of the vital sources of the information and a synthesis which re-organizes and re-shuffles the information that

A Comparison between the Pantheon and the Coliseum Essay

A Comparison between the Pantheon and the Coliseum - Essay Example This research will begin with the statement that the Roman Empire has been credited with a lot of history regarding its people, events, and most importantly architecture. Rome’s historical credit, in terms of architecture, is partly attributed to two great buildings, which are the Pantheon and the Coliseum. Architecture in Rome was not only limited to buildings but also included roads, great walls, forts, and baths. These two buildings see to it that Rome hosts an influx of hundreds of tourists on a daily basis. The building, Pantheon, was constructed in AD 118 at a site, which two buildings built had earlier burnt down. On the other hand, Coliseum was constructed in the year AD 80, on a site that hosted an artificial lake. The building of the enormous Pantheon structure was under the orders of Emperor Hadrin. Flavian Amphitheater is a different name used to refer to the Coliseum, whose construction was under the orders of Emperor Vespasian. Looking at the time the emperors ga ve orders for constructions of the two buildings, it is evident that the Coliseum was built earlier than the Pantheon, and both buildings count over 1,900 years of their existence. Pantheon, dome-shaped, was built with the objective of being a Temple. Coliseum was built in a shape that resembles an arena, and in most instances, it served the purpose of accommodating people during public entertainments and free games. The Coliseum suffered an incident in which part of it was destroyed by an earthquake, but to this day, the two buildings are still in existence serving as historical sites. Architecturally speaking, the two buildings the Pantheon and the Coliseum, can be compared and contrasted. Culture, traditions, and religious beliefs of the Roman Empire affected the architectural construction of the Pantheon and the Coliseum. Ancient Rome’s culture, tradition and religious belief were marked with the building of structures, which were novel at that time. Ancient Rome was an architectural society as it is reflected with the numerous constructions of monuments, temples, roads, forts, markets, theatres, villas and great walls. The structures were used for entertainment and religious purposes. Culture in ancient Rome entailed entertainments and games, which featured gladiators or slaves, fighting and the only way to win was to kill the opponent while spectators watched. In ancient Rome, tradition was practiced through worshiping gods in the buildings constructed as temples. Additionally, religious belief in ancient Rome was practiced through Christians worshiping their God in temples. The Coliseum Cultural, traditional and religious influence on the Coliseum The political class of Rome took advantage of Rome’s culture to construct the Coliseum in order to distract its citizens from politics. This was due to the fact that ancient Rome’s cultural practices were marked with a lot of entertainment and games. The Coliseum, which is an enormous structure, was built with the intention of providing an entertainment zone for Rome’s citizen at that time. Its construction was also political, in that it distracted the citizen of Rome from focusing on the political struggle at that time. The arena could accommodate more than 50,000 people in its four stories during entertainment sessions. This ampitheater was commissioned by the Emperor Vespasian credited to have been the founder of the Flavian dynasty, which ruled ancient Rome the entire time the Coliseum was under construction. Rome’s architectural culture was exemplified when Emperor Vespasian annihilated an artificial lake, which was constructed during Emperor Neroâ₠¬â„¢s reign and replaced it with the Coliseum (Coarelli & Gabucci, 2001 p207). The culture in ancient Rome, all along was also practiced through having many days and nights dedicated to celebrations and festivities. The celebrations were marked with slaughtering animals, drinking and organizing games to be watched by crowds of

Economic systems envisioned by Adam Smith in An Inquiry into the Essay

Economic systems envisioned by Adam Smith in An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of The Wealth of Nations and Karl Marx in The Communist Manifesto - Essay Example The food in the farms is produced for the global village and manufacturers produce for the entire globe. The consumers of the products remain to be the entire world. Adam Smith however, unlike Carl Marx, believes the wealth of the nations’ originates from the ability of laborers to work, this being skill and also the proportion of the employed to the unemployed. He says, this is what differentiates the wealthy nation and the poor nation. In that, a wealthy nation has less people working but everyone due to the sill of the laborers has abundant and is satisfied. However, in poor nations, the labor is more but unskilled such that, the little that is produced is not enough for the nation (Smith, 1776). Unlike Carl Marx, this perspective draws to attention the skills of labor and the units thereof that are accommodated by the capital. Another perspective in the causes of the wealth of nations is division of labor. Both Carl Marx and Adam Smith agree that it has led to growth of wealth. However, according to Carl Marx, it has continued to grow the rift between owners of factors of production and its laborers. Division of labor according to Adam Smith has contributed greatly in enhancing wealth. This is because, first, it has led to specialization. There are different branches of trade more so in the manufacturing industry. The different branches have given rise to expertise per work space (Smith, 1776). This has led to labor’s ability to do more than when they aren’t specialized. Another aspect is that of time. Time is greatly saved in production when division of labor is involved. According to Smith, it becomes easier for a worker to perform his work with specialty without wasting time changing and adopting to new skill. Another important cause of wealth through labor division has been the technological inventions (Smith, 1776). It is rather true that when one has one focus on work, they are able to come up with easier

G.C.S.E. English Coursework Macbeth Essay Example for Free

G.C.S.E. English Coursework Macbeth Essay Assignment title: (5) Fair is foul and foul is fair. Show how this image recurs and develops through the play. Throughout the tragedy, the theme entitled fair is foul and foul is fair, is key to the plays success and dramatisation, as it both recurs and develops as the play continues. The fore mentioned words are used by and against the key characters in the play, as Shakespeare uses his language to portray the theme and characters. The witches are key in performing the appearance versus reality theme. This major theme is first brought on in the first scene of the play, with the spooky, disturbing, oxymoronic verse culminating in Hover through the fog and filthy air, which explains Shakespeares intentions for the plot and deeper metaphors and echoes through to act five. The blatant opener is much like the oxymoron of I.3, lesser than Macbeth, and greater, which appears impossible, but sets the later scenes in which Banquo meets his end; because Banquo is lesser when he dies, but will be greater because of his fantastic devotion to good, and he shalt get kings, showing Shakespeares desire to impress James I, the possible seed of Banquo, in his theatre. It is clear that, by Hecats rhyming speech in III.5, strength of their illusion, that the fiends whole purpose and method is to deceive people like the literate Macbeth by situations appearing to mean certain things, but in reality meaning something totally different. This clever characteristic is also displayed by the apparitions: the third real or hallucinative metaphor, Be lion-mettled, tells Macbeth of the seemingly impossible move of Birnan Wood the high Dunsinane Hill that they speak of is the only way in which to kill Macbeth, and the English pick up the wood as a simple, proverbial but deadly i mportant battle tactic. The genius playwright shows subtly and brilliantly the innocent appearing child holding a tree, giving the rapt main character a clue to the ironic developments. The equivocal meanings along with the ever-present personification, Who chaves, who frets, would excite the audience and provide excellent entertainment. Also in the apparition scene, it seems that the masters are thought by Macbeth to tell him convivial news, but in fact they bring the disagreeable kind after the rhyming first head, beware Macduff! Dismiss me, enough., has deemed the tragic hero in this typically beautiful narrative, but what Macbeth does not know is that that what the bloody child said about his fate none of woman born shall harm Macbeth, which sends Shakespeare into his ride into the clouds incorporating the usual elaborate metaphors, a bond of fate, sleep in spite of thunder when the fantastical plot of Macduffs Caesarean section sees Macduff as the one with the powers, when he eventually kills the tot ally believing Macbeth. Shakespeare develops the character of Macbeth as a study of the supernatural when what seems like a worthless guess by three old hags, This supernatural soliciting, turns out, not only to be true, but doubtfully veracious in Macbeths mind from the very off, when even he does not know whether it is fair or foul, cannot be good, cannot be ill, in his oxymoronic evaluation of the words of the witches beforehand, creating dramatic Irony. Banquo is the contrast of this with his steadfast righteousness, to betrays in deepest consequence., but the evil predictions turn out to be true in Shakespeares idealistic plot, (to follow James Is views in his book, demonology) as the demons drive him to the highs of monarchy and all the way back down again. The soliloquies of Macbeth provide us with excellent insight into this well developed theme. He openly admits he himself is performing his own fair/foul deeds, Hes here in double trust, as what seems to be a feast for Kind Duncan, turns out to be his own murder as Macbeth describes the apocalyptic imagery, tears shall drown the wind, which he sees in the future, after his equivocal change from polysyllabic to monosyllabic words, Commends the ingredience, naked new-born babe, where Shakespeare cannot decide whether to be literally superb or to concentrate on his plot and echoes. This is developed again by the poet in the next act when it moves on from the simple, deceiving act of treachery, to disguise of evil, covering up true nature, Nature seems dead, where the malevolence is personified and Tarquins ravishing strides bury the seemingly irrepressible mother nature into the ground, as the audience are whiteness to the scene as a dilemma when Macbeth turns into the depraved, perfidious side of him. Macbeth is so rapt at the apparitions scene that he continues to use his poetic licence to great effect as, even when he is shocked, he continues to rearrange the two opposites while using alliteration to its fullest, blood-boltered Banquo. He continues in the exact same state of mind in the following pages, as Shakespeare develops Macbeth as an assertive, yet easily persuaded character, when the minor Lennox receives the same attention as the rest none The castle of Macduff I will surprise, as he ponders on how to kill the feared Macduff: Ironic because he hol ds the opinion that Macduff is foul, although he is fair and he believes the witches speak fairly, but their intentions are very foul. Much like in IV.1, Macbeth performs a soliloquy in his distressed state of mind while Seyton is present, in V.1. The theme is much more developed here where the philosophical Shakespeare tells his now entranced audience that Lifes but a walking shadow, displaying Macbeths depression, followed by his metaphorical, negative description, Struts and frets, of a thing that is thought of as virtuous by the majority of people. This comes after the so- called bad news of his wifes death, but he seems to think that a foul thing like that seems quite fair, She should have died hereafter, even though he appears as the other, sympathetic half of himself, find her disease, before again changing disposition, Would scour these English hence, where he self-centred like concentrates on his own, fragile destiny, as Shakespeare plays around and jumbles the character of Macbeth. Lady Macbeth is an excellent example of the fair/foul theme. She is a lady and is thought to be a kind, loving and lady-like, but her dramatic, alliterative entrance in I.5, And take my milk for gall, you murdering ministers, is the real Lady Macbeth, while the play write shows superbly how she is seeming to be fair in front of guests, Look to the lady, but in fact she is the real villain of the play, tormenting the audience and every-ones innocent ignorance of women. The theme is somewhat reversed towards the end of the script because Shakespeare with his depraved repetition, To bed, to bed, to bed has not made Lady Macbeth such an enemy to his enthralled audience, that they cant really feel sorry a little for her illness, This disease is beyond my practice, as she becomes more fair in the juggled end of the play. The wife of Macbeth also appears un-hurting, senseless and cruel, before we see the start of her more fair side in II.2, Had he not resembled I had donet, as the writer teases the audience with his confusing, twisting plot and monosyllabic dialogues. She repeats a more feeble side of herself in a more complex way as the play develops, dwell in doubtful joy, and she becomes a weaker character. Her contributions to the fair foul/foul theme change as she slowly becomes less of a villain, but her grip on her husband gets much weaker, Be innocent of the knowledge dearest chuck, as he becomes more of the evil one, whilst continuing to use oxymoronic personification, Light thickens, because before, he was looking to be just deception intended by the witches, In their newest gloss, where the lady attacks Macbeths masculinity, then you were a man, but in the second and third murders, a brave man being brought down by the witches. Lady Macbeth is also a great believer in the theme as a disguise for the couples actions, Look like the innocent flower, but be the serpent undert, as the great, evil mind of the lady, developed very early on in the play, plots to kill the king. She and him both exhibit their earlier intentions after the murder, outrun the pauser reason, and What, in our house, when suitably the predictions by the witches to be literal and an excuse to gain power, but the bad acting would show off Shakespeares talent of producing dramatic irony, frustration and repetition to show women as being insignificant, O Banquo, Banquo! Our royal masters murdered, which he does throughout the play. In the murder of Duncan, Lady Macbeth has an important role, as her argumentative side is apparent. This is so because she is taking the predictions by the witches to be literal and an excuse to gain power, but the well educated Macbeth sees the foul deception by the witches, In their newest gloss, where the lady attacks Macbeths masculinity, then you were a man, but in the second and third murders the she has no involvement. He dismisses her with his over stunning oxymoron, restless ecstasy, and alliterative metaphors, lifes fitful fever, so Shakespeare can show off to James I. The hallucinations of particularly Macbeth display the appearance versus reality theme because the objects appear, but are not reality. The dagger, well portrayed by some productions as a shadow, is the first time that Macbeth begins to hallucinate. His rapt, overpowered state of mind is skilfully shown by Shakespeare to provide us with apocalyptic imagery personified, fatal vision, and the thought that a fal se creation could turn a seemingly fair fate into such a foul ending. When the blood and gore become a reality, the cry of women, Untimely ripped, and Macbeth meets his sword-shaped death, which he speaks of in that soliloquy, moves like a ghost, as personification and simile spell out the real fate. At the turning point of the play, III.4, it is questionable whether Macbeth is hallucinating or not. This is still a good example of the fair /foul theme because Banquos death was supposed to be a good thing for Macbeth, but it turned out to be bad, whether in the mind of Macbeth (maybe through the witches speculative powers) or as the genuine ghost that is scripted by Shakespeare, with some in-appropriate, pretty language. The ghost of Banquo represents the change of feelings, of and towards the Macbeth couple, because Macbeth is sent into an even more psychotic, but still repetitive rapture, It will have blood, they say; blood will have blood, while the innocent flower withers and dies and havoc and evil reign in his kingdom, turned wild in nature, but l ady Macbeth becomes seriously mentally ill. At the start of act five, it is lady Macbeths turn to be hallucinatory. In scene one of that act, she admits she is really the evil one, as she was the one who projected the idea of a wolf in sheeps clothing, although disguised by Macbeths polysyllabic personification, Be bright and jovial among your guests tonight, and she ends up as the wolf. Shakespeare attempts to redeem her and not leave her on such a sour note as Macbeth, but possessive, selfish, un-dignified metaphors, Hell is murky, All the perfumes of Arabia, only drive the indifferent, spoilt character more into the role as the villain, before Macbeth kills mercilessly. Dramatic Irony shows the theme superbly because the audience can know of the truth while the characters do not. We first see Macbeth as being fouler than we originally thought when he initially makes his metaphorical lies. The now persuaded and focused Macbeth uses Shakespeares dramatic irony as the audience are aware of his thoughts as he deceives the righteous Banquo, I think not of them, when he first shows the audience that he is a traitor, while the killed traitor was replaced by him. When the play has turned against Macbeth, so has the dramatic irony. We heard in V.4 that the prophecy of the witches has deceived Macbeth and the Bard so comically yet sincerely with his own metaphors shows Macbeth hearing the news, The wood began to move, where the tragic hero is told of a seemingly fair protection against death, turned foul against him into certain fate. The tone is not such a happy and pleased one in IV.3. We can imagine the audience distraught and upset when the unfortunate Macduff is first lied to by Ross, but then the news breaks. Shakespeare increases the tragedy by Ross equivocal words They were well at peace to increase the dramatic irony before he sickens the audience with his blunt upheaval of alliterative comparison, your wife and babes savagely slaughtered, drawing people away from the idea that death is rest, first touched upon by the mercurial Macbeth. The disturbed Shakespeare is very obsessed the death of young characters. The people visiting the play will be very distressed by the playwrights veracity to beguiled murderers as first a small boy is brutally hacked down by the assassins, He has killed me mother, (and even he can use metaphor, shag-haired villain) followed by a teenager losing his life in vain, Thou liest, abhorred tyrant!, as the bewitched main character goes on his last run. This shows dramatic irony because we already know that only one of women born shall harm Macbeth so Shakespeare shows off his literary skills as the characters in Macbeth show their true states of mind through their language. Virtually the whole play contains the fair/foul theme; from the very first scene, until the moment in which Macbeth dies. As his evil world disintegrates, Malcolm concludes saying that righteousness is returned and the end of Macbeth signals the absence appearance versus reality, That fled the snares of watchful tyranny, and that Scotland will continue under his reign and significantly, James Is. He believes that Macbeth was not the totally guilty one, Of this dead butcher and his fiend-like queen, but the dead Lady is. Shakespeare must end the play relevant especially to James I, as a happy ending because the king would not like to see his fears the witches win or his possible ancestors lose.

Should Constitutions be Written?

Should Constitutions be Written? Constitutions should be written. Discuss. Choose one country with a case law system and one with a civil law system and discuss the advantages of each. ANSWER 1. Introduction A constitution can be defined as a system or framework which enshrines the principles and rules by which a body is governed. In the context of states the term makes reference specifically to the national constitution of the state, which serves to define the fundamental political principles, the legal environment and modus operandi of the state and which establishes the duties and powers of the government of the state.[1] National constitutions can be classified as either codified or uncodified. Codified constitutions are those which are contained in a single document, containing the single source of the constitutional law of a state, and perhaps the most well known example is the Constitution of the United States.[2] Uncodified constitutions are those which are not contained in a single document, but consist instead of several different sources, which can be written or unwritten.. It should be noted that there are hybrid systems which seem to fall between the two classes such as the Australian Constitution[3], in which constitutional law largely derives from a single written document, but other written documents are also considered part of the constitution[4]. Probably the best example of a pure uncodified constitution is the constitution of the United Kingdom which does not rely on any single written fundamental document, but rather consists of a patchwork of written and unwritten sources. The term written constitution makes reference to a constitution which is entirely written and by definition this would include every codified constitution. Indeed, in academic writing the term written constitution is synonymous with codified constitution, and in similar fashion the term unwritten constitution is interchangeable with uncodified constitution (although as stated this is not always entirely accurate: see Australian constitution). In the modern world, codification is the norm. Most states have evolved written constitutions which stand as the supreme and overarching statements of national law. Unwritten constitutions are certainly in the minority, but it is submitted at the outset that this should not be taken as proof that a written constitution is a prerequisite to success or stability. 2. A Common Law System: England The United Kingdom is notable in that it operates under an unwritten constitution, although this term has been criticised by commentators such as Bogdanor as a â€Å"misleading platitude†[5]. In this paper we will confine ourselves to an examination of the legal system of England and Wales, within the United Kingdom, because the Scottish legal system derives from Roman Law a very different legal heritage and tradition.[6] The modern English system of law can be traced back to the Norman conquest of 1066. The Norman kings, while promising to respect local rights and customs, dispatched judges to travel around the country on circuits and these judges gradually began following each other’s decisions to preserve the consistency of the application of law in different parts of the country. This practice became formalised and is today known as the doctrine of judicial precedent. This doctrine was extremely successful in underpinning the English common law system (ie a law common to all parts of the kingdom). One advantage of this uncodified model is that it is free to grow and develop organically to suit the changing environment it must regulate something which is more difficult when one is bound by a rigid set of general principles such as that which would underpin a fully written system. As the Parliament at Westminster fully established itself and grew in power and authority over the Monarch it took its place alongside the common law. Together, the common law and Parliamentary legislation came to offer a coherent and comprehensive system of law, which has matured and refined itself over centuries of stable government. It can be argued that an unwritten system puts its faith in untrammelled democratic process and in those charged with its maintenance. There are, it is submitted, obvious risks attached to this strategy, but in simple terms England has never found the need to adopt an overlaying written constitution, because of the strength and scope of its existing system. However, this is not to say that the English ‘constitution’ is entirely unwritten. Aspects of constitutional-style law are evident in venerable statutes such as the 1215 Magna Carta,[7] the 1689 Bill of Rights[8], the 1701 Act of Settlement[9] and the 1911 and 1949 Parliament Acts.[10] More recently the United Kingdom has adopted quasi-constitutional law in piecemeal fashion by means of the European Communities Act 1972, which provides the legal framework necessary for the country’s membership of the European Union, and the Human Rights Act 1998, which imports the rights and freedoms enshrined in the European Convention of Human Rights into UK law, conferring those rights on citizens of the United Kingdom. This means that the English system achieves an effect equivalent to that which is delivered by a written constitution without the formality of the latter model and therefore some of the advantages of written systems are to some extent rendered nugatory. That sai d, the principle that stands at the very heart of the English legal system and overrides all other provisions and considerations cannot be found set out in any of these documents. The highest rule of UK law, which has the potential to override any principle of a constitutional or quasi-constitutional nature, is the Doctrine of Parliamentary Sovereignty. This unwritten rule declares that the Parliament of the United Kingdom enjoys full and unchallengeable sovereignty in all its actions. In practice, this means that the Parliament of the day (namely the House of Lords the House of Commons, and the Monarch acting together)[11] has supreme authority over all aspects of English governance and all other institutions of the state, including the courts and other executive bodies. This ensures that the situation in England differs with that which prevails in many states operating under codified or written constitutions, where supreme courts are often empowered to strike down legislation deemed to be unconstitutional in nature.[12] The Constitution of the United States’ is one example of such a system and the so-called â€Å"checks and balances† it employs to safeguard the integrity of the constitution and the governance of the state are much cherished.. In the English system, given that Parliamentary supremacy is unquestioned, although complex procedures for judicial review are in place, by which courts can review and challenge laws considered defective in some way, the final word is left to Parliament itself. In the Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885)[13] Dicey : â€Å"Parliament has the right to make or unmake any law whatever; and further, that no person or body is recognised by the law of England as having a right to override or set aside the legislation of Parliament.† This is the most important law of the English legal system and it is this rule above all which explains the country’s lack of a written constitution. As a direct consequence of the application of this principle the UK Parliament has the power to make, amend and revoke law on any issue at any time. No Parliament has the power to bind a successor Parliament to its will, meaning that no Parliament could enact a so-called constitutional law which could not later be repealed or amended by some future Parliament as easily as any other piece of legislation. Moreover, the only body with the ultimate power to vary a law brought into force by the UK Parliament is Parliament itself. This gives the English system considerable flexibility and adaptability, and this is clearly and advantage. However, given that the system relies exclusively on the integrity of Parliament, its success is predicated on a fluctuating democratic mechanism. To date, the United Kingdom has enjoyed good and stable government and its citizens have not expressed any cogent desire for the protection of a written constitution.. However, that is not to say that at some point in the future the â€Å"checks and balances† and clarity typically provided by a written constitution might prove useful. 3. A Civil Law System: France The French legal system is a good example of a civil law system operating under a written constitution. The current Constitution of France, which is known as the Constitution of the Fifth Republic, was adopted in 1958.[14] It has been amended on various occasions, most recently in 2003. The French model is particularly interesting as it was used as a template for the foundation treaties of the European Economic Community, which has now evolved to become the European Union, which itself is now seeking to establish its own written constitution.[15] National legal systems characterised as Civilian are those which see their origins in the model of governance adopted in ancient Rome by the Emperor Justinian (sometimes known as Roman law systems). Civil law systems are systematic (based on an organised code of conceived principle) and inductive (where a specific ruling is induced from a general first-principle) as opposed to Common law systems which are empirical (based on a bank of actual cases) and deductive (where a general principle is deduced from a specific instance or series of instances). As to which system is to be preferred, both give rise to a variety of advantages and disadvantages and both have the potential to provide a state with a fair and effective system of government. Codified or written systems are always of the Civil school, given that a code of law is a prerequisite of that legal tradition, and consequently common law or case law systems are far better suited to an uncodified or unwritten constitutional arrangement. In very general terms the advantages of written systems of law such as the French system are those of certainty, consistency, clarity and stability, while its main disadvantage is rigidity. Unwritten case law systems benefit from being more fluid and adaptable and assuming this flexibility is not abused an uncodified model can be extremely successful. The main disadvantages of case law systems are that it is more difficult to predict the law’s response to new situations, and that the fundamental guiding principles of the legal system are harder to identify. The preamble of the French constitution refers to the 1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. As such it establishes the identity of the French state as a democratic secular republic which derives its sovereignty from the people of France. This gives the French constitution a clear mandate and provides it with a strong foundation, something which is lacking in unwritten, uncodified systems such as the English. This may be construed as an advantage, given law is an amorphous concept which can benefit from grounding in any context, but unless the authority of law is subject to challenge the advantage is theoretical only and the people of England appear satisfied to adhere to the law without such conceptual underpinning.. A written constitution such as the French offers a â€Å"one-stop shop† for provisions relating to the election of the President of France and the French Parliament.. It also sets down mechanisms for the appointment and selection of the Government of France, and specifically details the powers of each of these bodies and the relations between them. The French constitution also guaranteed the autonomy and authority of the judiciary and establishes the Constitutional Council, the High Court of Justice, and an Economic and Social Council. This is a clearly useful, and probably stands as an advantage over the English system, where such matters are dealt with in piecemeal fashion and without the simplicity and some might say methodological strength of an written system. When dispute arises in the French system there is therefore one and one only sovereign authority to turn to for guidance and this may prove beneficial in its resolution. In rebuttal, those defending the unwritten En glish system can point to many states which operate under a written constitution which suffer considerably more administrative difficulties and enjoy significantly less stability than it does. The maxim â€Å"if it isn’t broke, don’t fix it† appears to suit the English experience and explains the reluctance or at least ambivalence of English government and people in this context. The French constitution also provides for a politically strong President and this could be seen as another advantage, although again it is hard to argue that the British Prime Minister is prejudiced by the fact that his role is not similarly enshrined.. The French constitution also permits the ratification of international treaties such as those necessary for membership of the United Nations and European Union.. However, this is not necessarily an advantage. It is submitted that in modern times the trend has been towards greater and deeper international association. It could be argued that national written constitutions have the potential to frustrate international integration given that the international association may also wish to establish a sovereign constitution and that there will inevitably be conflict between the two sets of laws. There are tensions, for example, between the French constitution and the constitution which has been proposed for the European Union, and even with existing provisions of EU law. It can thus be contended that the English unwritten system is more adaptable to assimilation with an international body incorporating its own constitutional framework. Moreover written constitutions can be bypassed something done by French President Charles de Gaulle in highly controversial circumstances in 1962,[16] and this can leave a new law in a state of limbo. 4. Concluding Comments In summary, it is submitted that perhaps the most obvious advantage of a codified or written constitution is that it provides coherent, comprehensive and certain body of rules.. Being contained in a single document a codified constitution is accessible to all and can, if well crafted, establish an equitable and effective system of governance and rights. Written constitutions also promote consistency and concrete points of reference for law which can be applied to shape a legal system’s response to changing conditions within a state. That said however, written constitutions which become entrenched may suffer from rigidity and it is flexibility that perhaps stands as the greatest advantage of the unwritten, uncodified system operated in the United Kingdom. It is true that constitutional courts may offer a wide range of interpretations of constitutional principles under a written system, but it is not possible to lend a codified system that flexibility and adaptability enjoyed by an unwritten one. The title to this work asserts that â€Å"constitutions should be written†. It has been shown that this is not necessarily the case, given that states can function successfully and for long periods of time without the foundations of a codified or written constitutional framework. A good example is that of the United Kingdom itself, which is one of the most stable and successful democracies in the world, and which has grown to become such without being underpinned by a written constitutional document. While it has been suggested that the United Kingdom adopts a written constitution there appears to be no urgent pressure or compelling need to make the change. Therefore, while it is acknowledged that most states around the world have adopted a codified constitution this commentator contends that the statement under review should be subject to the caveat that states do not require to make reference to such a system of law as a prerequisite to effective government or a robust and e quitable society. The fact that a constitution is unwritten does not necessarily undermine the integrity of a national legal system, as the relative success of the United Kingdom and such countries as New Zealand and Israel testifies. There are, has been noted, risks attached to an unwritten system which puts its faith exclusively in the democratic process. However, in closing it is worth noting that there are also risks attached to written systems bound to overarching constitutions, because those constitutions can be abused or manipulated in a way that can deliver excessive power and authority. A constitution is, after all, only as good as the words that comprise it. Ironically, the elliptical doctrinal patchwork of an unwritten system can frustrate the intentions of nascent dictatorial ambition. In conclusion it is undeniably true that the great majority of states have chosen the certainty and clarity of a written system, but that is by no means the only way to run a country well. THE END WORD COUNT : 2808 (excluding footnotes) BIBLIOGRAPHY A. Bradley and K. Ewing, Constitutional and Administrative Law, (2003) Longman Wikipedia (various sources): http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States JF McEldowney, Public Law, (2002) Sweet Maxwell P. Spink and N. Busby et al, Scots Law, (2003) LexisNexis Albert Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885): http://www..constitution.org/cmt/avd/law_con.htm. 1 Footnotes [1] For an insightful overview see: A. Bradley and K. Ewing, Constitutional and Administrative Law, 13th ed., (2003) Longman, chapter 1. [2] See: http://en.wikipedia..org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States. [3] See: http://en.wikipedia..org/wiki/Constitution_of_Australia. [4] In the Constitution of Australia, most fundamental political principles and regulations regarding the relationship between branches of government, and regarding the government and the individual are codified in a single document, the Constitution of the Commonwealth of Australia. However, the existence of statutes with constitutional significance, namely the Statute of Westminster, as adopted by the Commonwealth in the Statute of Westminster Adoption Act 1942, and the Australia Act 1986 means that Australias constitution is not incorporated in a single constitutional document. [5] See: http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/talking_politics/88136.stm. [6] See P. Spink and N. Busby et al, Scots Law, (2003) LexisNexis, chapter 1. [7] See: http://www.bl.uk/treasures/magnacarta/translation.html [8] See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/English_Bill_of_Rights. [9] See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Act_of_Settlement. [10] See: http://en.wikipedia..org/wiki/Parliament_Acts. [11] Although the participation of the Crown is essentially ceremonial and formal only. [12] See: http://www.archives.gov/national-archives-experience/charters/constitution..html. [13] Albert Dicey, Introduction to the Study of the Law of the Constitution (1885): http://www.constitution.org/cmt/avd/law_con.htm. [14] Which replaced that of the Fourth Republic dating from October 27, 1946. [15] Ironically this plan has been frustrated by a negative referendum vote in France itself. [16] See: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitution_of_France.

Applying Gis To Coastal Erosion And Hazards Environmental Sciences Essay

Applying Gis To Coastal Erosion And Hazards Environmental Sciences Essay The coast is the area where marine and terrestrial processes meet and interact. Limits of their respective actions are not well known, as processes which are characteristic of each of these environments are interrelated. This particular characteristic makes the coastal zone highly complex and vulnerable to human actions, which in many cases, cause permanent damage to the natural environment. Coastal Erosion has turned out to be one of the most crucial socio-economic and environmental problems facing authorities in charge of coastal hazard management. Irrespective of the major causes of this hazard, which could be human or anthropogenic, it has caused economic losses, social problems and ecological damage. The problem of coastal erosion can extend hundreds of kilometres along the shore line or it might be localized to small areas affecting surrounding communities or the tourism industry. Coastal Erosion has been defined as a natural process by which coastlines adjust to different sea levels, energy levels, sediment supply and existing topography. It poses a problem when it threatens to destroy human life and property. In identifying the problems of erosion, human value judgements come in as erosion does have many societal and natural benefits. Coastal Erosion is usually judged as problematic wherever the rate of erosion, considered in conjunction with economic, recreational, agricultural, demographic, ecological and other relevant factors, indicates that action to remedy erosion hazard may be justified and required. The coast is used for several purposes and based on this fact, it is important to devise ways of attaining compatibility among these various uses while at the same time attempting to preserve the natural environment. Faced with the threat of climate change and possible sea level rises, it is necessary to put in place elaborate coastal management scenarios that will consider all elements for planning and sustainable development. Many recent studies done on Coastal Erosion have approached the problem within an integrated framework. This integrated approach takes into consideration the need for deep knowledge of the physical environment and the relationships between processes of involved elements and acceptable coastal management plans. These physical factors are also conditioned by legal, environmental and social factors (Barragan, 2003). The frequency of occurrence of coastal erosion is expected to rise and has become an issue of great concern to scientists and authorities in charge. Broad scale modelling of coastal morphology has been a major challenge for scientists and authorities alike. Several studies have been carried out in order to address this issue and its determinants (Townsend and Burgess, 2004; Burgess et all, 2002). More detailed analyses of risks and responses in coastal hazard management are affected by little knowledge of the magnitude and location of erosion hazard zones for different shoreline changes and management situations. GIS AND COASTAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT The coast is unique because of several marine and terrestrial processes that occur there. As result of this, there is need for integration of data relating to different aspects and factors of the coastal environment in policy development and planning. GIS provides the right platform for data collection, analyses, and storage and information dissemination. It has the ability to display spatial and temporal evolution of processes and factors that control them in order to analyse them better and evaluate their impact on the coastal environment (Hamada, 2004). It also able to identify spatial connections between different data layers leading to the development of models for geomorphologic evolution and coastal change prediction. Several studies using GIS applications and methodologies in coastal hazard management have been carried out in several parts of the world. These studies have lead to the development of GIS applications or models and a few of these include: BALTICSEAWEB (Latinen and Neuvonen, 2001) Oceanic Bigeographic Information Systems (OBIS) (Zhang and Grassel, 2002). Coastal Erosion and Shoreline Development Regulation (Miller et all, 2003). SCAPEGIS (Walkden and Hall, 2005). Dune Hazard Assessment Tool (NOAA Coastal Services Centre, 2003) These applications have been developed for specific coastal areas as each area requires its own peculiar management strategies and therefore its own GIS application for planning and policy development. Recent studies in this area have advocated an integrated approach (ICZM) which promotes sustainable development of coastal areas by blending the use of natural resources in ways that limit damage to the environment. In using this approach GIS is useful as it aids data integration, storage, analyses and visualisation. GIS AS A TOOL FOR COASTAL HAZARD MANAGEMENT For the application of GIS to coastal hazard management to be carried out, there is need for data required for the different task to be available and accessible. The data requirements for this include slope, lithology, vegetation, drainage, structural conditions, coastal erosion and human action etc. In the coastal environment GIS is being increasingly used as a tool for collection, integration of required information and storage in a database with a view to accessing data, generating thematic maps and performing spatial and geo statistical analyses (Latinen and Neuvonen, 2001). During the process, relevant information is sourced and collected, compiled into a geo database, converted into relevant units and introduced into the GIS platform. This is useful in the integration and analysis of parameters used in coastal vulnerability assessments resulting in coastal risk maps (Doukakis, 2005). This is advantageous because it provides a flexible system. Data can be accessed and used through the database model system. It also allows data automation, visualisation, editing, mapping, spatial analyses, geo statistical analyses etc. The flexibility and versatility allows GIS to be used in many planning tasks in different situations for example in the area of maps, aerial photographs, statistics, tables and graphs that give details of the environmental conditions and their spatial distributions can be displayed. Fig 1. An example of a cartographic information prepared using GIS for coastal Management. Maps, aerial photos, tables and graphs that show spatial distribution of environmental conditions are displayed for visualisation. (Rodriguez et all, 2009) APPLICATION OF GIS TO COASTAL EROSION ESTIMATION GIS has been useful in studies of prediction and estimation of coastal erosion. The datasets required for this include topographic data, bathymetric data, recession rate data, historical maps and time series data as they describe the vulnerable state of the coastal environment and coastal erosion. Some of the applications of GIS include: GIS allows comparison between cartographic or map information that has been geo-referenced and this is very important for coastal change analyses. GIS allows collection of data showing temporal trends of shoreline positions for different dates. Such data can be derived from sources like satellite imageries, aerial photographs and cartography digitization. GIS allows integration of data from all these sources. GIS allows shoreline positions corresponding to different year to be overlaid with a view to aiding the identification of areas that have experienced movements or changes. GIS aids the calculation of erosion and accretion rates. It does this by calculating line lengths and perimeter of polygons. GIS allows detailed analyses of evolutionary trends. It aids the definition of the system and prediction of likely occurrence allowing change anticipation and hazard preparedness. GIS is advantageous because new data can be integrated and constant and dynamic follow up of coastal processes can be carried out. This allows continued development of models that can be useful in studying other aspects of the coastal environment (Sanchez et all, 2005). GIS has also been used in dune evolution studies and it has been highly useful in the area the data requirements are wind transport data, swell, sediments, wind speed, topography, soil humidity, bathymetry etc are required. These datasets are needed for the determination of dune field evolution and aeolian transport rates. This in turn enables the characterisation of the sedimentology, geomorphology and meteorology of coastal zones. Some other studies have made use of GIS as a tool for analyses and interpretation of coastal erosion model outputs. Making use of GIS to visualise predictions of coastal erosion provides a vital means of understanding coastal changes and their impacts locally and regionally (Brown et all, 2004). The intended target audience here are policymakers and planners interested in visualising erosion predictions and to carry out analyses of their implications so that proper mitigation measures can be set up by integrating other data sets for impact estimation and decision support. This basically involves the use models developed specifically for coastal erosion and one of such has been (SCAPEGIS) which is a process based model that determines the reshaping and retreat of shore profiles along the coast (Walkden and Hall, 2005; Dickson et all, 2005).It was developed from soft cliff and platform erosion model. These models provide the input for SCAPEGIS. It has been used in integrated assessments of coastal erosion and flood risk for strategic planning of responses to flood and erosion hazards. The SCAPE model was run for different climatic and management scenarios and the results were integrated into SCAPEGIS with other auxiliary data for detailed visualisation and impact analyses. The advantage of this GIS platform is that it allows importation of other erosion models developed with similar data output format. Fig. 2. The Impacts Estimation dialog of SCAPEGIS. Source: (Koukalas et all, 2005) Fig 3. An example of an Erosion Risk Map showing recession lines under certain climatic scenarios and management. The land after the yellow line towards the sea is assumed lost while the land between the yellow and blue lines is at risk. (Koukalas et al, 2005) The constant rise in the degradation of coastal environments has led to the need to develop techniques of balancing the protection of people and the economy against the cost of coastal hazards. As a result of this, a multidisciplinary approach to coastal management has been proposed (Nicholls et all, 2007). Coastal environments have become more vulnerable to the effects of climate change and rising sea levels. They also have high social, economic and biological value. In order put all this factors into consideration, the Integrated Coastal Zone Management Framework was proposed with a view to integrating all this factors while at the same time preserving the natural environment. Methodologies for the application of GIS within this framework have been developed by several institutions like UNESCO, European Union and several working groups (Olsen et all, 2003; IPCC, 2007) to mention a few. Within this framework, GIS is useful because of its ability to collect, integrate and analyse the different data requirements within an integrated framework. It has been used for coastal dune system research projects and shoreline evolution studies (Hernandez et all 2007; Ojeda et all, 2005). GIS aids the integration of required data like dune perimeter, shore line position so that spatial analyses of these data layers can be carried out and some of its application in this regard include: GIS aids integration, organisation and structuring of required data sets. GIS aids the development f Digital Elevation Models needed for the estimation of dune volume, volumetric evolution and dune migration. GIS allows for determination of dune morphology, dune slope and orientation. GIS allows for creation of possible dune predictions depending on sea level rise and waves. 3D GIS has proved to be very useful for this task (Sanchez et all, 2005) The advantage offered by SCAPEGIS tools is made evident in the analyses of coastal erosion model results. It has been proposed that these models be linked with other models of environmental studies like land use models for better appreciation of coastal hazard management (Hall et all, 2005). CONCLUSION In coastal erosion and hazard management, modelling spatial and temporal dimensions of dynamics of the coastal environment have proven to be some of the most challenging tasks in marine and costal GIS. The shift from the regular line and polygon data structure to digital shoreline is as a result of the need to develop technology for shoreline change detection and spatial modelling. GIS is being increasingly used in the development of policy and planning in coastal erosion and hazard management. This is due to the fact that in management policy implementation there is need for a tool able to store, analyse and display spatial and temporal data. GIS provides an appropriate platform for this. It provides a suitable instrument for integration of territorial data, makes variable analyses easier, allows for future scene simulations and allows potentially hazardous area to be identified. GIS is also use for evolutionary trend analyses and system characterisation which are important in the management of the coastal environment. However, models used are not always accurate as there are errors and uncertainties and as such these uncertainties should be systematically looked into when the results are being analysed for planning and policy development. There is also the problem data availability and accessibility. Data required may not always be available or accessible. In the developed world, access to such data is more reliable and available. In other parts of the world, required data can be unavailable and where they are, may be inaccurate.

Fossil Fuels: Our Societys Dependency :: essays research papers

Fossil Fuels: Our Society's Dependency Our society has become dependent on fossil fuels for energy. That seems fine for now considering the fact that everyone is generally happy in the present situation. Fossil fuels are relatively inexpensive and seem to be doing the trick right now. Using fossil fuels arise such issues as global warming, rising costs of scarce resources, and shortages of raw materials. None of these problems will draw full attention until the demand is needed, it's the old supply and demand scenario. Although my opinion may seem pessimistic if you look at past events it points to the supply and demand scenario.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  During World War II rubber supplies were cut off to the western world and we began to work on a compound that was a synthetic rubber. We succeeded in supplying the demand and now that same synthetic compound is used today. My theory is that the same thing will happen with such things as plastic, which is made from fossil fuels. Someone will either come up with a synthetic plastic or come up with something to substitute for plastic. The person who comes up with the solution will become and instant millionaire and everyone will be happy. There is one draw back of this way of solving problems, I mean sure it's great to wait until the demand but we should still learn from our mistakes. We should learn to plan ahead and see what the consequences could possibly be.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  We still have other demands to meet, there are three major demands of fossil fuels and they are heating, transportation, and industry. Although transportation is taken care of, we may not like the thought of a solar car or an electric car but there are solutions out there. Frankly the oil companies don't want to lose their monopoly in the transportation industry and that brings us into the whole economy issue. If we run out of fossil fuels what will happen to the economy? Will it suffer? These are just a few questions that are asked everyday, but for now we are just going to look at solutions for demands on fossil fuels. This chart below illustrates the demands and the possible solutions. Energy Demand Alternative Energy Sources and Practices heating - solar heating, heat pumps, geothermal energy, biomass gas, and electrical from hydro and nuclear plants transportation - alcohol/gasohol and hydrogen fuels, and electric vehicles - mass transit, bicycles, and walking - solar energy, nuclear energy, and hydroelectricity - improved efficiency and waste heat recovery In conclusion I don't think the need for a substitute for fossil fuels will

Existentialism in Franz Kafkas The Metamorphosis Essay -- Metamorpho

Franz Kafka's The Metamorphosis is a masterfully written short story about Gregor Samsa, a man who devotes his life to his family and work, for nothing in return.   Only when he is transformed into a helpless beetle does he begin to develop a self-identity and understanding of the relationships around him.   The underlying theme of The Metamorphosis is an existential view that says any given choice will govern the later course of a person's life, and that the person has ultimate will over making choices.   In this case, Gregor?s lack of identity has caused him to be numb to everything around him.      Ã‚  Ã‚   One morning, Gregor awakens to find himself with the body of a beetle.   Although it never explains how Gregor morphed into a beetle, or shows that Gregor gives much thought to having the body of an insect, Kafka gives the strong impression that Gregor is extremely devoted to his work and is the sole support for his family, none of whom work themselves.   Gregor devoted himself to a life of work and self sacrifice, following ...

The Idea Of Universal Design Architecture Essay

There are many misconceptions environing the thought of cosmopolitan design. Peoples frequently believe that supplying the handicapped with signage or a incline is sufficient and patterns the ideals of cosmopolitan design. What people must understand is that cosmopolitan design is about supplying these necessary comfortss to the disabled without segregating them from the norm of society. It is besides approximately making a infinite that can defy multiple environments and the crazes of clip as a dateless creative activity. In a universally designed universe peoples differences are non highlighted by constructing use but are designed for and make seamlessness between users. The bottom up theory is looked to by many interior decorators when set uping cosmopolitan infinite ; â€Å" it works on the premiss that the edifice users, the designer is functioning include those with disablements are all people who can be treated as normal people [ 2 ] † and with this you must get down at the underside of the pyramid and purpose to make the top and achieve universal design. Questions to see when planing a universally designed infinite may be how this infinite will react to different environments or epochs and as the user or users change what will be the response to how it is used. Universal designed has been outlined and defined into seven rules that can be applied to a broad scope of countries including architectural infinites to merchandise design.Equitable usageFlexibility in usageSimple and intuitivePerceptible informationTolerance for mistakeLow physical attemptSize and infinite for attack and usageAccess Living HeadquartersAccess Living is an organisation that started in the early 1970 ‘s and has been committed to rehabilitation and growing of handicapped peoples by the support of handicapped peoples. This company has personal with a battalion of disablements and alone challenges that they encounter. In March 5, 2007 LCM Architects lead by spouse John H. Catlin, FAIA designed entree life ‘s chief central office in Chicago with non merely a cosmopolitan focal point by as a sustainable design way. This 50,000 115 West Chicago Avenue. concern footmark for Access populating genuinely reflects the mission of the company and reinforces their ideals to authorise the options available to differences of others. It has been awarded â€Å" the Barrier Free America Award from Paralyzed Veterans of America ; A sustainable design award from AIA ; the Trend Setter Award from Friends of Downtown ; LEED Gold Certification ; and a Silver Award from the Association of Accredited Architects † .Design Solutionsâ€Å" LCM designers started the vision of cosmopolitan design, by taking an accessible location † and sing edifice attack. The edifice is no more than two blocks from the local train ‘s belowground station and from the metropolis coach. This close relationship non merely encourages green transit but it provided for utilizations that may non hold other manners of transit and its premier location allows for people from multiple locations to be able to utile this characteristic with easiness. In add-on to the consideration of close propinquity, the garage of the edifice has designated infinites that allow for electri c vehicles to be recharged for usage. As users approach, the edifice integrates two kerb bead offs seamlessly added to let for users coming from street degree and for wheelchair lifts to hold a â€Å" direct path to the chief edifice entryway † [ 4 ] . Being in a colder clime of the United States, architect Catlin devised a solution to cover with iced pavements in the winter months by planing a het concrete pavements and good illuminated attacks. All of these characteristics lead straight into the entryway of the edifice that is separated by two sets of skiding doors that open straight off the pavement. These doors have a broad gap of 60 inches to let for easy mobility or two wheelchairs in passing. Once you enter in to edifice for entree life, its good designed interior anteroom infinite and furniture choice leaves you no hint that this infinite is universally designed. LCM designers and there squad of interior decorators took close consideration into their interior picks being scruples of spacing, stuffs, colourss and constellations so this truly was a universally accepting infinite. â€Å" Universal design has a close relationship to human factor and biotechnologies. As a procedure they both attempt to see the abilities and restrictions of users when developing a merchandise or edifice an environment. [ 5 ] † All of the furniture came from the Steelcase, so a choice piece could be duplicated in several signifiers to include with arms/without, adjustable or basic systems that encouraged alteration as necessary. Using a individual maker line allowed for a broad scope of siting picks to read and flux seamlessly. Within this constellation ample infinite is giving for wheel chair move ability and integrating within a personal or big group interaction. Multiple chair highs are included for users of all statures and â€Å" clearance below some of the seating is unfastened to let the user to force up to the standing place with their leg musculuss [ 6 ] † . A usage characteristic within the anteroom is the response desk ; â€Å" Lehner points out that the response country underscores the cosmopolitan design. â€Å" â€Å" A individual nearing the response desk in a wheelchair should hold the same ability to utilize it as a individual who does n't hold a disablement. That ‘s the premiss behind the full design-no 1 uses a back door or side door, and no 1 uses a incline. Everybody comes in the same door and uses the same lifts † † [ 8 ] . Unique to most response desk, the primary dimension is at a wheel chaired accessible â€Å" antagonistic tallness of ( 29-30 † AFF ) † [ 9 ] . Based on the guided attack to the desk articulatio genus and toe infinite is carefully designed and supply for. The response desk does besides include a little part at the standard tallness of 42. Much consideration was giving to the response side of the desk because this would be the primary and full clip user of the millwork. The desk maintains the counter tallness and electrical mercantile establishments are placed at the terminals of the counter opposed to across to minimise the demand for users to strive to make across counter span. The employee besides is provided with a really accessible attack to their work station and a turning radius within, leting for a 360 grade wheelchair turning radius. Beyond the response desk, cagey inclusions of cosmopolitan rules are utilised to help with user move ability throughout. Two lifts with dual entry points allow users to travel rapidly in and out without the demand of turning within a little confined infinite. The lifts are besides big plenty to back up four wheelchairs within. Along with the maximization of mobility within the lift Architect Catilin incorporated province of the art exigency usage engineering for the deaf and caput of hearing and enlarge lift buttons placed at a cosmopolitan accessible tallness. Each of the floors of the Access Living Company, are colour coded so users can easy place vicinity and way. This colour coding procedure is a fantastic tool to help the immature kid to aged and people with all timers. This would besides extinguish the defeats of acquiring off the lift on the incorrect floor, like so many of us have done. Once on a floor users, will detect ample floor infinite as to non to experience constraine d by close furniture constellations and for wheelchair passing. The high traffic and countries of emersion are ingeniously deigned with a floor boundary line that lines the walls so the visually impaired can easy use this tool to steer through the floors. To a user with no sight impairments this merely appears as an aesthetical characteristic because of how good it integrated throughout. This characteristic is a premier illustration of how cosmopolitan design rules do non foregrounding the differences of users.ObstaclesIn planing the Access Living headquarter LCM Architects, incurred many obstructions in making a infinite that was non merely cosmopolitan, sustainable but besides aesthetically and functionally functional. With their primary focal point on making a cosmopolitan infinite they rapidly learned that â€Å" what works for one disablement does n't ever work for another, [ 10 ] † Lehner says. As a cosmopolitan interior decorator you must larn to equilibrate the integrating of adjustments so they are non swayed by a peculiar user. à ¢â‚¬Å" That ‘s nowhere more evident than in the flooring. Lowest common multiple discovered through research that rug, contrary to popular belief, serves people with MCS by pin downing contaminations that would otherwise remain airborne. It besides offers grip for people utilizing canes. â€Å" But rug can be hard to negociate with a wheelchair, † says Catlin [ 11 ] † This is a great lesson to be learned because when people think a disablement they excessively frequently merely think of wheelchair users. After choosing a cloth that architect Catlin thought would be perfect for all of the users in the infinite he rapidly had to return to the pulling board after one employee had an epileptic ictus from the intense patterning of the flooring. This is one illustration of the many troubles faced in this undertaking in planing for the multitudes, but Catlin remedies this job by put ining a more hushed form through the edifice while still â€Å" guaranting at that place was still adequate contrast on hallway boundary lines to assist steer people with ocular damages [ 12 ] † .DecisionAlthough they are a part of users there are wheel chair bound we must see and be cognizant that there are infinite damages that cause all users to hold different demands and ways in which they utilize a infinite. Planing a cosmopolitan infinite you must hold an apprehension of that and retrieve that you are non planing for outlined user but in bend everyone becomes your user. It is frequently really hard to make and plan a feasible solution that all people will hold user friendly, which is why designers and interior decorators seem to steam off from this rule. Catlin illustrates that non merely can plan be an aesthetically delighting cosmopolitan infinite but green rule can besides be an applied in a superb manner.Plants CitedAccess Living. Ed. Geekpak. Acess Living, 2008. Web. 14 Oct. 2009.Boniface, Russell. â€Å" Paralytic Veterans of America Honors Chicago-b ased Access Living for Accessible Design. † The News of American ‘s Community of Architects. AIArchitect, 17 Aug. 2007. Web. 20 Oct. 2009..Dong, Hua. Switching Paradigms in Universal Design. Vol. 4554/2007. Heidelberg: Springer, 2007. Print.Goldsmith, Selwyn. Universal Design. Pine tree state: Architectural, 2001. Print.Meyers, Tiffany. â€Å" UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN ACCESS LIVING HQ. † Metropolis Magazine Oct. 2007. Metropolis Magazine, Sept. 09. Web. 23 Oct. 2009..Tandem, Byan, erectile dysfunction. â€Å" Home Design: Understanding Universal Design. † AARP ( 2008 ) . AARP. Web. 22 Oct. 2009..Goldsmith, Selwyn. Universal Design. Pine tree state: Architectural, 2001. Print.GoldsmithAccess Living. Ed. Geekpak. Access Living, 2008. Web. 14 Oct. 2009.Access LivingDong, Hua. Switching Paradigms in Universal Design. Vol. 4554/2007. Heidelberg: Springer, 2007. Print.Access LivingAccess LivingBoniface, Russell. â€Å" Paralytic Veterans of America Honors Chicago-bas ed Access Living for Accessible Design. † The News of American ‘s Community of Architects. AIArchitect, 17 Aug. 2007. Web. 20 Oct. 2009..Access LivingMeyers, Tiffany. â€Å" UNIVERSAL DESIGN IN ACCESS LIVING HQ. † Metropolis Magazine Oct. 2007. Metropolis Magazine, Sept. 09. Web. 23 Oct. 2009..MeyersMeyers

Electronic books Essay

An e-book reader, sometimes also called an e-book device, is a device used to display e-books. It may be a device specifically designed for that purpose, or one intended for other purposes as well. The term is restricted to hardware devices, not software programs. The main advantages of these devices are portability, light diffusion, and long battery life. It should be noted that any Personal Data Assistant (PDA) capable of displaying text on a screen is capable of being an e-book reader. At first when the e-book devices were introduced those were supposed to be made for the elite class as the people belonging from the lower class could not afford it. But now mass productions of the e-book devices have made life easy and more convenient. You can have an e-book device fit in your pocket and read books on the move (Harold , 2001). Now you can an e-book device for as low as $10, the device may not have to be some thing sophisticated or complicated but a simple machine with a built-in screen which provides you light to read what the electronic book says. Devices with extra ordinary functions are costly and the prices start from $100-$2000, these devices are only used by people who travel a lot and have to have something that is reliable. An example of the e-book reader could be Amazon Kindle, A long thin pad electronically controlled and easy to fit in pocket cost $384 and has been ranked as the best selling e-book reader of 2008 and 2009. To conclude e-book devices have gain market share tremendously have now have become common among teachers , students and business profesionals. References Book Harold, H. (2001). Electronic books and publishing. Springer.

National Strategy for Combating Terrorism Essay

In the recent years, global terrorism has come into picture as a serious problem that threatens the world peace. The world community has expressed deep concern over the menace of terrorism in different parts of the world. Terrorism has struck countries like the United States, India and countries in Middle East and other parts of Asia. The terrorist attack on September 11, 2001 forced the United States to take a tough posture on this issue. The George Bush administration formulated a national strategy for combating terrorism, known as the Bush Doctrine. However, the war on Afghanistan and Iraq also revived the debate over the principles of the Just War Doctrine that exists for centuries. These two doctrines are contrasting in nature. A large number of people believe that the Bush Doctrine violates the basic principles of Just War. Just War Doctrine Just War always distinguishes between justifiable and unjustifiable use of force. The main objective of Just War is to restrain the use of arms and use them only when the peace and justice are in danger. A war always causes widespread destruction. It results in the killing of innocent civilians and creates economic and social turbulence. Although the war ends within a few days and or months, the survivors feel the impact for the years to come. People from different sections of the society always questioned the use of violence to preserve peace. Although killing is morally not justified, the inevitable war between states often leads to mass killing. Just War Doctrine aims at the protection of unarmed civilians and the need for necessary measures to minimize deaths. Just War is a theory practiced by the Catholic Church. The Catechism’s teachings on Just War forbid the intentional destruction of human life. It states that all the citizens and governments must work for peace. However, it allows a country to go to war for its self-defense if all peace efforts have failed. Just War theory believes in the principle of legitimate self-defense in the form of war. However, the threat must be real and grave and there should be no alternative to avoid war . It completely denounces initiating armed conflict without any provocation. The main principles of Just War are: ? Before going into war, it is necessary to explore all non-violent options to resolve the conflict. ? A legitimate authority must endorse the use of violent force by using discretionary power. ? A Just War fought against injustice with right intentions, is always justifiable. ? It prohibits States from using unnecessary use of force. Peace is the ultimate goal of a Just War. ? Just War allows use of force only against the armed combatants. It requires all States to take necessary steps to avoid civilian casualties . Just War makes a clear distinction between the use of arms against sovereign nations and the political compulsion of going to war. Nobody can justify the mass killings. However, the circumstances often warrant such an action. A Just War is defensive and cannot be aggressive under any circumstances. The main concern in every war is the loss of lives and property. Civilians always suffer heavily whenever there is a war. Just War Doctrine strongly emphasizes on protecting the lives of innocent civilians. National Strategy for Combating Terrorism (Bush Doctrine) In the wake of the terrorist attack on 9/11, President George Bush led the way to fight against global terrorism. The military doctrine of the United States had been a policy of deterrence for years. George Bush changed it into a policy of striking at the countries that threatens the interests of the United States. Under the Bush Doctrine, the United States adopted the idea of pre-emptive strikes on the suspected countries. The Bush Doctrine is a national strategy for combating terrorism. The new doctrine clearly states that the US would not allow any country to question its military supremacy. It also believes that the US has a bigger role to play in maintaining peace in the world by waging war against the rogue nations and terrorists. It denounced terrorism in strong words and calls for non-compromise on its national interests . The need of a comprehensive strategy to combat terrorism has become necessary keeping the strong capabilities of the terrorists. By using weapons of mass destruction, terrorists sent a clear signal that they could launch attacks on important installations at their will. The Bush Doctrine identified possible threats in three categories. These potential threats are global terrorist organizations, states that harbor such organizations and rogue states. It defined rogue states as states that oppress their own citizens and squander the national properties for the self-interest of the rulers. Countries that disregard international law and threaten their neighbors are also fall in the same category. In this context, the Bush Doctrine termed Iraq, North Korea and Iran as rogue states. However, the focus was on Iraq. The US policy stated in clear terms that it would not wait and watch until the rogue nations acquire or develop the weapons of mass destructions and use them to destroy the humankind . Preemptive strike is not a substitute for the non-military measures such as financial sanctions and diplomatic offensive to isolate a nation that practices dangerous propaganda. It is just an add-on policy to combat the new threat of invisible war launched by the terrorist groups. The main objective of the Bush Doctrine is not to tolerate the ghastly act of terrorism in any form. Conclusion In the past decades, people from some sections of the society developed new ways of terrorizing people to force the government and administration to meet their demands. Suicidal attacks in the United States, India, Israel and Iraq are the examples of the newly developed way of warfare. There is little option left with the states to tackle terrorism. A full-fledged war against terrorism and countries harboring terrorists has become inevitable. In this context, the Bush Doctrine seems to be an effective option. The leaderships in the world always explored ways for dialogue and discussion to tackle such problems. However, from the recent incidents, it has become clear that bringing the terrorists into negotiating table is almost impossible. They hardly showed any willingness to enter into dialogues. Their intransigent attitude forced the governments to take tough decision in curbing terrorism. Many people question the policy of the Bush Doctrine citing the principles of Just War Doctrine. However, in the recent years the world witnessed deadly acts of terrorism that killed thousands of people and caused loss of public and private property. In such a scenario, war against terrorism becomes completely justifiable. The only concern is about the loss of civilian lives. States going to war must address this concern properly and take necessary steps to avoid this. Bibliography Dolan, Chris J. In War We Trust: The Bush Doctrine and the Pursuit of Just War. Burlington, VT: Ashgate, 2005. Elshtain, Jean Bethke. Just War Against Terror: The Burden of American Power in a Violent World. New York: Basic Books, 2003. Daalder, Ivo H. , James M. Lindsey, & James B. Steinberg. The Bush National Security Strategy: An Evaluation. Washington: Brookings Institution, 2002.